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SOURCES OF GALENA . LEAD AND SILVER IN PREDYNASTIC EGYPT

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Introduction

In her recent paper Kay Prag (1 ) has drawn attention to the relatively widespread use (and preservation) of silver objects in Egypt and the Levant in the second half of the fourth millenium which* far Egypt, corresponds roughly to Middle and Late Predynastic times. In contrast lead occurs rarely in Predynastic Egypt. Though lead metal itself is so rare, galena (natural lead sulphide ore) is known as an eye paint from Badarian times and occurs relatively commonly in Late Predynastic (Naqada 2) burials both as the natural mineral and in a prepared form as a fine powder (2). Crude galena was often placed in the graves in small linen or leather bags together with grinding stones and palettes; the prepared form has been found in shells, reeds, vessels, or wrapped in leaves.

It is well known that galena is often argentiferous and that the smelting of galena to provide lead metal (which carries the silver with it) is not a very difficult process (though see 3)» Though we are not yet certain of the date at which cupellation "was first used to produce silver from argentiferous lead we do know from Marinatos1 finds of litharge in the destruction layer at Akrotiri that cupellation was practised in Thera prior to 1450 BC, whilst at Thorikos cupellation was practised prior to 1520 BC (4). The evidence from finds of Early Cycladic and Early Minoan silver together with silver at Troy 1 and 2 suggests the use of cupellation at least as early a3 2000 to 2700 BC. The mineralogical source of Egyptian Predynastic silver is not yet

established, but the possible association of silver and lead in the same mineral, galena, that was certainly used as a Predynastic eye shadow suggested that further investigation of Predynastic burial galena and lead and silver artefacts might be worthwhile.

Prag (1 ) lists about 25 Egyptian silver artefacts which have been found in late Predynastic contexts. Elsewhere in the Levant Byblos stands out in that 233+ silver objects have been found there in the "énéolithique" graves (1). Pétrie and Baumgartel both suggest that the Predynastic Egyptian silver came from outside Egypt, and Baumgartel (5) pointed out that "if we knew the source of Predynastic Egyptian silver it would cast some light on foreign connections and trading." Pétrie suggested mines in north Syria as the source of silver, but we do not know of mines of argentiferous galena in that country. On the other hand artefacts showing Syro-Palestinian and Mesopotamian influence have certainly been found in Predynastic sites (7), (8). North Syria may well not have been the source of Egyptian Predynastic silver, but the intermediary for trade with a silver source in Asia Minor which may also be the source for the large amounts of silver found at Byblos.

As for the source of Predynastic cosmetic galena Pétrie states baldly that it was "probably brought from Syria" (9), whilst Lucas (2, p. 244) has "little doubt that most, if not all, the lead and galena used in Egypt until about the Eighteenth Dynasty was of local origin." Dykmans (1O) takes the view that galena probably came by exchange with the Syrians, who exploited this mineral associated with silver in the Taurus mountains